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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial science and innovation as the country’s primary productive force.

The initial stages of China’s AI development were sluggish and experienced significant obstacles due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind most Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually received greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has gradually developed a nationwide agenda for expert system advancement and became one of the leading nations in expert system research and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of „nationwide AI groups“ including fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company should lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s fast AI development has significantly affected Chinese society in numerous areas, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most impacted by more AI deployment.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are few present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first national law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions meant to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the impacts of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the development of generative artificial intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and innovation for China’s financial growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research and advancement did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was tough so China’s federal government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying federal government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have become part of China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has further expanded its research study and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study jobs has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the advancement of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was likewise pointed out in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the „Chinese Intelligence Year,“ a considerable milestone in China’s development of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released „A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan“ (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the plan described AI as a strategic innovation that has become a „focus of global competition“. [14]:2 The document urged considerable investment in a number of strategic areas associated with AI and called for close cooperation between the state and private sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the „transferability of social resources“ between economic and military ends is an important element to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,“synthetic intelligence plus“ was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The exact same year saw the emergence of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council mentioned the requirement for massive talent acquisition, theoretical and useful advancements, along with public and personal investments. [14] A few of the stated inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI strategy consist of the capacity of expert system for commercial transformation, much better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] Since completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence broadened to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the introduction of large language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively issued the regulations worrying deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, including specifications for data collection and model training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy discussion with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed issue over AI safety dangers, consisting of abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors created with generative artificial intelligence to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which plans to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The 4th and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new „AI Tigers“. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese technology firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be important to the future of international military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make essential contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its place as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council aims for AI to end up being „the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial improvement“ by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of artificial intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have established a „fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.“ [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government „seeks to combine state planning and control while some operational flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market securities, creating uneven benefits as they broaden offshore.“ [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a top research study priority and ranks AI initially among „frontier industries“ that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector typically supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing generally concentrated on sophisticated and applied research. [38] The government financing also supported numerous AI R&D in the personal sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research study showed that, while China is enormously buying all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to national guidance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and regional industrial advancement and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, greatly concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play an important role in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate collaboration, public-private cooperations, and worldwide collaborations and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing obligations on AI companies, the overall method to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population produces an enormous quantity of available data for business and researchers, which uses an essential benefit in the race of big information. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of internet users, producing huge quantities of data for maker learning and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is among the most commonly employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its citizens assists further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to further AI R&D however also uses incredible financial potential attracting both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic development of the information and communication technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets in recent years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft measures mentioning that tech business will be bound to ensure AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal duty for training data and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content may not „prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.“ [51] Before releasing a large language model to the general public, companies must look for approval from the CAC to certify that the model refuses to respond to specific questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that maintains libraries including training information sets frequently used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies regional business with training data that CCP leaders consider permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually cautioned that the Chinese federal government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese artificial intelligence design DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to address questions associating with features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial impact on China’s long-term financial development. In the past, traditional industries in China have fought with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional costs are expected to lower while a boost in effectiveness produces profits growth. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and lack of correctly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers may be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development since of rising demands for workers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth might be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related industrial advancement is focused in seaside areas instead of inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to develop a „world-class“ armed force by „intelligentization“ with a specific focus on the use of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards revealed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense innovation and worries of a broadening „generational space“ in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to use AI for exploiting big chests of intelligence, producing a common operating picture, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, decision assistance, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few limits exist between Chinese business business, university research labs, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct means of directing AI development priorities and accessing innovation that was ostensibly established for civilian purposes. To further reinforce these ties the Chinese federal government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI innovation from commercial business and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of data identifying to develop the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, potentially granting it lawful access to U.S. technology and copyright. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign investments, „especially those from rival or adversarial countries,“ from purchasing U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, consisting of „microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.“ [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its model usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly because China faces difficulties in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have actually been working in the field for over ten years, while approximately the very same percentage of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research items. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the variety of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published papers, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China particularly want to attend to military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently established the very first kids’s instructional program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific focus on user defense, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans shall stay in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles requiring vital needs in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and lots of national federal governments have actually developed legislation attending to information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to resolve brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulatory framework categorizing all kinds of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are needed to classify their information into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and manage data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI assesses the proof presented and uses appropriate legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach impartial decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology companies might erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that „increasing party leadership, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are intentional goals of SCR [wise court reform]“ [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually gotten attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has sought to motivate private tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as „AI champions“. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for enterprise use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by investors as China’s new „AI Tigers“ in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to worldwide AI management and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards protecting a worldwide technological dominance – China missed both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s „rightful“ place and to pursue the national rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that „Chinese government officials showed incredibly keen understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,“ and advised that „the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise focus on cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China“ and „financing, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive needed modification.“ [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: „China may have unrivaled resources and enormous untapped potential, but the West has world-leading competence and a strong research culture. Rather than fret about China’s development, it would be wise for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. “ [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship regime has stunted the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI produces obstacles for holistic national security, consisting of the threats that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will cause greater oppression of workers and more serious social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital accumulation and political power in fewer economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the main accountable actor in the location of generative AI (producing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI threats escalating military competitors between countries which the impact of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country but will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential risk from artificial intelligence have happened. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is typically positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study carried out throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI exceed the threats, the greatest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university students found that 80% concurred or highly concurred that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% thought it ought to be controlled by the government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly used AI facial acknowledgment has raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, deployment of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang area to find Uyghurs is „the first recognized example of a government purposefully using synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,“ [95] which is stated to be „one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.“ [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, areas experiencing greater rates of unrest are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment innovation, particularly by local community cops departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.

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