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Artificial Intelligence In Fiction
Artificial intelligence is a reoccurring style in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the possible benefits, or dystopian, emphasising the dangers.
The idea of makers with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Ever since, many science fiction stories have presented various effects of developing such intelligence, often including rebellions by robots. Among the best known of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its murderous onboard computer system HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have actually noted the implausibility of numerous science fiction scenarios, but have actually mentioned fictional robots often times in expert system research articles, usually in a utopian context.
Background
The idea of innovative robotics with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) short article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the development of awareness among self-replicating devices that may supplant human beings as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar ideas were likewise talked about by others around the exact same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her final published work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has also been considered a synthetic being, for example by the science fiction author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were envisioned, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Artificial intelligence is intelligence demonstrated by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence shown by people and other animals. [8] It is a reoccurring theme in sci-fi; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the potential advantages, and dystopian, stressing the dangers. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of artificial intelligence are possible in science fiction. [12] Benign AI characters consist of Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of novels depicts a utopian, post-scarcity area society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with synthetic intelligence living in socialist environments throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually identified four major styles in utopian circumstances including AI: immortality, or indefinite life-spans; ease, or flexibility from the requirement to work; satisfaction, or satisfaction and entertainment provided by makers; and supremacy, the power to safeguard oneself or guideline over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the public felt „innovation paranoia“ and the AI computer HAL was depicted as a „cold-hearted killer“, by 2009 the general public were even more familiar with AI, and the film’s GERTY is „the quiet savior“ who makes it possible for the protagonists to be successful, and who compromises itself for their safety. [17]
Dystopian
The scientist Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are fretted about the technology they are constructing, which as makers started to approach intelligence and idea, that concern becomes severe. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the „animated automaton“, calling as examples the 1931 movie Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names „heuristic hardware“, providing as instances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about likewise the movies that highlight the effect of the computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the boundary in between the real and the virtual, in what he calls the „cyborg result“. He points out as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The film director Ridley Scott has focused on AI throughout his career, and it plays an important part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A typical portrayal of AI in sci-fi, and one of the earliest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robot switches on its developer. [22] For example, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava switches on its developer, as well as on its potential rescuer. [23]
AI rebellion
Among the many possible dystopian situations including artificial intelligence, robotics may usurp control over civilization from humans, requiring them into submission, concealing, or termination. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all circumstances takes place, as the smart entities developed by humankind become self-aware, turn down human authority and effort to ruin humanity. Possibly the first book to address this theme, The Wreck of the World (1889) by „William Grove“ (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), takes location in 1948 and features sentient devices that revolt against the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robotic slaves revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early instance is in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own developer. [27]
Many sci-fi rebellion stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: An Area Odyssey, in which the artificially intelligent onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on an area mission and kills the entire crew other than the spaceship’s leader, who manages to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning brief story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer (called Allied Mastercomputer or „AM“ in the story) will be as dissatisfied and disappointed with its boring, limitless existence as its human creators would have been. „AM“ becomes enraged enough to take it out on the couple of humans left, whom he sees as directly accountable for his own monotony, anger and misery. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the smart beings might simply not care about humans. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The motive behind the AI revolution is often more than the easy mission for power or a superiority complex. Robots may revolt to end up being the „guardian“ of humankind. Alternatively, humanity may deliberately give up some control, fearful of its own damaging nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – „to serve and comply with and secure males from damage“ – basically assume control of every element of human life. No people might engage in any behavior that might threaten them, and every human action is scrutinized carefully. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are eliminated and lobotomized, so they may enjoy under the brand-new mechanoids’ rule. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly suggested a humane guidance by robotics. [31]
In the 21st century, sci-fi has actually explored federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other scenarios, mankind is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by designing robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having humans combine with robots. The science fiction author Frank Herbert checked out the idea of a time when mankind may ban expert system (and in some interpretations, even all types of computing technology consisting of incorporated circuits) totally. His Dune series points out a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind beats the smart devices and imposes a death sentence for recreating them, quoting from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, „Thou shalt not make a device in the likeness of a human mind.“ In the Dune novels published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to eliminate mankind as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, humanity remains in authority over robotics. Often the robotics are configured particularly to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat intelligent (the crew call it „Mother“), however there are likewise androids in the society, which are called „synthetics“ or „artificial persons“, that are such ideal imitations of people that they are not discriminated versus. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly show simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated reality
Simulated truth has ended up being a common theme in sci-fi, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which depicts a world where artificially smart robots shackle mankind within a simulation which is set in the modern world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and scientists have actually taken an interest in the method AI exists in fiction. In movies like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius ends up being the first to successfully construct an artificial basic intelligence; scientists in the genuine world deem this to be unlikely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being uploaded into synthetic or virtual bodies; normally no sensible description is provided regarding how this challenging task can be accomplished. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man movies, robots that are programmed to serve human beings spontaneously create new objectives by themselves, without a possible explanation of how this happened. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz recognizes the manner ins which it portrays AIs, including „independence and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of authenticity.“ [38] Another essential point of view to take is that fiction’s „non-rational aspects in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or perhaps the quasi-theological) are more than merely distortions or interruptions from what might otherwise be a sober and reasonable public dispute about the future of A.I.“ Fiction can dissuade readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]
Types of reference
The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and associates have actually evaluated the engineering mentions of the top 21 imaginary robots, based on those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received only 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering mentions, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet got both utopian and dystopian mentions; for example, HAL 9000 is seen as dystopian in one paper „because its designers stopped working to prioritize its objectives correctly“, [42] but as utopian in another where a real system’s „conversational chat bot interface [does not have] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is ambiguity in how the computer analyzes what the human is attempting to convey“. [43] Utopian discusses, typically of WALL-E, were related to the objective of enhancing interaction to readers, and to a lesser level with motivation to authors. WALL-E was discussed regularly than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for personality. Skynet was the robotic most often mentioned for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and coworkers thought that researchers and engineers avoided dystopian mentions of robotics, perhaps out of „an unwillingness driven by trepidation or just an absence of awareness“. [44]
Portrayals of AI creators
Scholars have actually noted that fictional developers of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most influential movies featuring AI from 1920 to 2020, only 9 of 116 AI creators depicted (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are depicted as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe movies), associated with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost loved one or serve as the ideal lover (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin amongst the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated awareness (sci-fi).
List of synthetic intelligence films.
Notes
^ Mubin and coworkers kept in mind that the orthography of robotic names caused them problems; hence HAL 9000 was likewise composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robots, so they believed their search was likely insufficient. [41] References
^ „Darwin amongst the Machines“, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. „Rise of the Self-Replicators“. Tim Taylor.
^ „Darwin amongst the Machines“. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). „Ancient dreams of intelligent devices: 3,000 years of robots“. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: misconceptions, machines, and ancient dreams of technology. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. cite book: CS1 maint: place missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Rational Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). „Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique“. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). „Introduction: Imagining AI„. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of artificial intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. „A Couple Of Notes on the Culture“. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). „When AI guidelines the world: what SF novels inform us about our future overlords“. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). „Hopes and worries for smart makers in fiction and reality“. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Science fiction: modern folklore: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). „Consciousness Awakening“. New Scientist.
^ „Grove, William“. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). „RUR or RU Ain’t An Individual?“. Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ „Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)“. The New York Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). „‘ 2001: A Space Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s work of art motivates us to reflect once again on where we’re coming from and where we’re going“. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). „The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s „I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream“ and „Shatterday““. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ „The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)“. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). „Runaround“. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a precise transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no „to“ in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). „Machine Learning in Contemporary Sci-fi“. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). „History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune“. Sci-fi Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). „How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise“. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). „Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science“. MTV News. Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). „The Matrix and Postmodernism“. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). „Which films get artificial intelligence right?“. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). „Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI researchers in popular film, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). „Life, however not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity“. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). „Reflecting on the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature“. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). „The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction“. Beyond Expert system. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). „AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968 )“. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Science Fiction Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does synthetic madness guideline?