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Expert System Industry In China
The expert system industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms emphasizing science and technology as the nation’s primary efficient force.
The preliminary phases of China’s AI advancement were slow and encountered significant obstacles due to absence of resources and skill. At the starting China was behind a lot of Western countries in regards to AI development. A bulk of the research study was led by scientists who had gotten greater education abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually gradually developed a nationwide program for artificial intelligence advancement and emerged as one of the leading nations in artificial intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to end up being a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of „national AI teams“ including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each business ought to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s fast AI development has considerably impacted Chinese society in numerous locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the leading industries that would be the most affected by more AI deployment.
The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in numerous aspects as there are couple of current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade constraints meant to limit China’s access to innovative computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have been raised about the impacts of the Chinese government’s censorship regime on the development of generative synthetic intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research study and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and technology for China’s financial development. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Artificial intelligence research study and advancement did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was tough so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further providing federal government funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s national innovation plan. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has actually even more broadened its research study and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study tasks has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was likewise discussed in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of synthetic intelligence. The first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion corresponded with the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the „Chinese Intelligence Year,“ a substantial turning point in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China issued „A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan“ (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a strategic innovation that has actually ended up being a „focus of global competition“. [14]:2 The file advised substantial investment in a number of tactical areas associated with AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and personal sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the „transferability of social resources“ between financial and military ends is an essential part to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,“expert system plus“ was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The same year witnessed the emergence of several application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council mentioned the requirement for enormous talent acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, along with public and personal financial investments. [14] Some of the mentioned motivations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI method include the potential of synthetic intelligence for industrial change, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the introduction of large language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists began establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s first big scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the regulations worrying deepfakes, which became efficient in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, including requirements for data collection and model training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to develop AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed issue over AI security dangers, consisting of abuse of data or the usage of AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors created with generative expert system to deliver phony news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new „AI Tigers“. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]
As of 2024, many Chinese technology firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of major AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Government goals
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be important to the future of international military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make fundamental contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council aims for AI to become „the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial improvement“ by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of artificial intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have established a „fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.“ [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government „seeks to combine state planning and control while some functional versatility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, developing asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.“ [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a leading research study top priority and ranks AI first amongst „frontier markets“ that the Chinese government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167
Research and advancement
Chinese public AI financing primarily focused on innovative and applied research study. [38] The government financing also supported multiple AI R&D in the personal sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research study revealed that, while China is massively buying all elements of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]
According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s high-tech commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and local industrial advancement and environment. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, greatly focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competition for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]
Interdisciplinary partnerships play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private partnerships, and global partnerships and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]
As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101
According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and enforcing commitments on AI business, the total technique to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s large population produces a huge amount of accessible information for companies and researchers, which uses an important advantage in the race of big information. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s largest variety of web users, creating huge quantities of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial acknowledgment
Facial recognition is one of the most commonly utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of information from its residents assists more train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only conducive and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however also uses remarkable financial possible bring in both global and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The extreme development of the info and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and content controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft steps specifying that tech business will be obliged to make sure AI-generated material promotes the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal obligation for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content might not „incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.“ [51] Before launching a large language model to the general public, business must seek approval from the CAC to accredit that the design declines to answer particular concerns connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be decreased. [52]
In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries consisting of training information sets commonly used for large language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies local companies with training information that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has warned that the Chinese federal government uses generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese artificial intelligence design DeepSeek has been reported to decline to address concerns associating with features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic effect
Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-term financial growth. In the past, traditional industries in China have battled with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional costs are anticipated to reduce while an increase in performance creates profits development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and lack of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most negatively affected by China’s AI development due to the fact that of increasing demands for laborers with innovative abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial development is focused in seaside areas instead of inland. [61]
An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98
Military impact
China looks for to construct a „first-rate“ military by „intelligentization“ with a specific concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards revealed a computer system simulation of a similar swarm development finding and ruining a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is likewise establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is largely affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and fears of a widening „generational gap“ in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to utilize AI for making use of big chests of intelligence, creating a typical operating image, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]
Twelve categories of military applications of AI have been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, decision support, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]
China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of borders exist between Chinese business companies, university research labs, the military, and the main federal government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct ways of directing AI advancement top priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian purposes. To even more reinforce these ties the Chinese government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI technology from business companies and research organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of data labeling to develop the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily appropriate AI applications, potentially giving it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual home. [69] Chinese equity capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign investments, „especially those from rival or adversarial nations,“ from buying U.S. innovation firms, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has been investing, including „microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.“ [71] [72]
In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its design usage restriction for military purposes. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, especially since China deals with difficulties in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have been working in the field for over ten years, while roughly the same proportion of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the number of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China particularly want to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently developed the first children’s curriculum in military AI on the planet. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical concerns
For the previous years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific focus on user security, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI concepts requiring essential requirements in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]
Data security has been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous national federal governments have established legislation dealing with data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to deal with new difficulties raised by AI advancement. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure classifying all kinds of data collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are needed to classify their information into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and handle information transfers to other parties. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI assesses the proof provided and applies relevant legal standards. [82]:124
Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach unbiased decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology business may erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that „increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [smart court reform]“ [85]
Leading companies
Leading AI-centric business and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]
China’s government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage private tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as „AI champs“. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new „AI Tigers“ in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to international AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically ingrained reasons for China’s anxiety towards securing a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to make the most of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s „rightful“ location and to pursue the national renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
A short article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that „Chinese government authorities demonstrated incredibly eager understanding of the issues surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,“ and suggested that „the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly prioritize cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China“ and „funding, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive necessary change.“ [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: „China might have unequaled resources and enormous untapped potential, but the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research study culture. Rather than fret about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. “ [91]
The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI develops difficulties for holistic national security, including the dangers that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing impacts on global relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will cause greater injustice of employees and more serious social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing higher capital build-up and political power in less economic actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the primary accountable actor in the location of generative AI (producing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI dangers escalating military competitors in between nations which the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation but will have spillover effects. [28]:91
Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have happened. [92]
Public polling
The Chinese public is regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study conducted throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI exceed the risks, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student found that 80% agreed or highly agreed that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% thought it ought to be controlled by the federal government. [93]
Human rights
The commonly used AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang area to discover Uyghurs is „the very first known example of a federal government purposefully utilizing synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,“ [95] which is stated to be „one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.“ [96] Researchers have found that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of unrest are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment innovation, specifically by regional municipal cops departments. [97] [98]
Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of artificial intelligence business
Regulation of expert system
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.